LSD, ecstasy, mescaline, GHB, PCP, DMT, amphetamines, 2C-B, and other psychoactive substances form the core foundation of contemporary entheogenic culture: understanding them accurately is the first step toward respecting them.
- LSD or LSD-25 (Lysergic acid diethylamide)
- Mescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine)
- GHB (Gamma-hydroxybutyrate)
- Ecstasy or MDMA (Methylenedioxymethamphetamine)
- Poppers (Amyl nitrite)
- Cat (Methcathinone)
- Hofmann’s Elixir
- Adrenochrome
- PCP (Phencyclidine)
- Mescaline-LSD Group (Trimethoxy-phenyl-beta-aminopropane)
- MLD-41, TMA, JD, JB-318
- DMT (N,N-Dimethyltryptamine)
- Lorfan (Levallorphan)
- Amphetamines
- Smart Drugs
- 2C-B
- Other substances
LSD or LSD-25 (Lysergic acid diethylamide)
This is the undisputed queen of entheogenic substances; no substance known today matches the extraordinary potency of this drug, as its active effects are roughly 7,000 times more potent by weight than mescaline or peyote.
This drug was discovered by chance by Dr. Albert Hofmann on May 2, 1938. Lysergic acid is merely one constituent among many found within ergot fungus, but on that historic day Hofmann coupled it with a diethylamide group, creating through semi-synthesis a compound he designated in German as Lyserg-Säure-Diäthylamid. From its initials arose the world-famous acronym LSD, appended with the number 25 because it was the twenty-fifth derivative in his systematic series of synthetic investigations. Spanish chemists and psychiatrists once proposed that its name, translated into Spanish syntax, ought to be DAL.
The drug was initially utilized by research scientists and psychiatrists in experimental studies with schizophrenic patients, but rapidly escaped clinical confines into the public sphere during the 1950s. Three distinct factors drove this rapid proliferation: first, its extraordinary pharmacological potency; second, the ease of concealing a clear, odorless, and completely tasteless solution, enabling drops to be deposited onto sugar cubes, water, blotter paper, or mundane items without detection; and third, the relative feasibility of illicit laboratory synthesis from ergot precursors.
The human threshold required to trigger pronounced psychological symptoms is approximately one microgram per kilogram of body weight. According to psychiatrist Sidney Cohen, a mere half-kilogram of pure LSD introduced into New York City’s municipal water supply could theoretically induce a model psychosis across the entire metropolitan population.
Generally, people who take LSD also consume other psychoactive substances. Polysubstance use frequently associates LSD consumption with amphetamines, cocaine, cannabis, and other hallucinogens. Non-medical recreational use of LSD-25 was first formally documented by United States law enforcement in 1959, when authorities discovered the compound being used sacramentally by members of a Seattle religious community.
The onset of LSD begins approximately thirty to forty-five minutes following ingestion, reaching its peak intensity within an hour to ninety minutes, with peak effects plateauing for roughly five hours. The experience gradually tapers over the subsequent eight hours, though subtle perceptual afterglows often linger for variable periods. Like all classic entheogens, LSD exerts multifaceted somatic and mental actions, systematized in 1968 by Hole. Autonomic vegetative symptoms stem from sympathomimetic stimulation, inducing mydriasis (pupillary dilation), altered respiration, tachycardia or bradycardia, fluctuations in blood pressure, lacrimation, alternating chills and flushes, perspiration, head or abdominal tension, nausea, occasional vomiting, and piloerection (goosebumps). These physiological manifestations almost invariably precede the onset of psychological and visionary phenomena. Optical visual effects are prominent and deeply influenced by the subject’s emotional state. They span from rudimentary elementary visions (flashes of light, sparks, shimmering glows, rotating vortices) to kaleidoscopic transformations of the exterior environment into ornate, richly colored geometric patterns floating in perceptual space.
Beyond these abstract architectural and ornamental forms, subjects often witness fully realized figurative scenes (familiar objects, animals, people, mythological entities, remarkably akin to vivid dreamscapes).
Auditory phenomena typically assume a secondary role, occasionally manifesting as auditory hallucinations or voices reminiscent of certain schizophrenic symptoms.
Regarding altered somatic sensations, Hole distinguishes two categories: delightful, whimsical somatic distortions on one hand, and terrifying, grotesque physical delusions on the other. Hole also examines altered sexual experiences within this somatic spectrum. Timothy Leary emphasized the powerful erotic and aphrodisiac qualities of LSD with the following observation: “When you are sitting across from a woman during an LSD session, you receive thousands of subtle chemical messages like erotic grenades exploding across the olfactory receptors. Physical touch becomes both electric and intensely erotic, released by the immense reservoir of nervous energy, especially sexual energy, unlocked by LSD.”
Distortions of time and space are profound under LSD. At higher dosages, orientation to physical surroundings dissolves completely. Subjectively, a span of several minutes can feel like an eternity of years, generating acute distress when comparing clock time to experienced internal duration.
In addition to altering consciousness, LSD stimulates the sympathetic autonomic nervous system, producing pupillary dilation, elevated pulse, systolic and diastolic blood pressure increases of 10 to 20 mm Hg, and a 10 to 20 percent elevation in blood glucose concentration. Spinal reflexes may likewise become heightened.
Lingering effects observed across subsequent days include calm reflective moods, heightened introspection, or mild hangover symptoms characterized by minor tension headaches.
LSD has been clinically applied in psychiatric psychotherapy, addiction treatment for chronic alcoholism, and even historical attempts at treating homosexuality. Parapsychological and extrasensory claims have also surfaced, including reports of an investigator correctly guessing twenty-two out of twenty-six hidden playing cards under controlled conditions.
Researchers investigating animal behavior observed striking anecdotes: in one noted experiment, a domestic cat exposed to LSD was placed in an enclosure with a mouse; the feline recoiled in absolute terror.
Many individuals turn to LSD seeking to expand their mental horizons and transcend the socio-cultural conditioning of their upbringing. Highly educated circles have used LSD deliberately to remodel their fundamental philosophical paradigms.
According to Sandison, the central philosophical question posed by the global resurgence of entheogens—chief among them LSD, heralded by proponents as a “vitamin for the senses and intellect”—is whether they genuinely expand the depth of human experience and, when approached with integrity, enrich human personality.
As with all classic entheogens, specific visions, emotional insights, and delusional reactions vary drastically depending on individual set (character, expectations, psychological maturity) and setting (physical environment and social support).
Countless prominent artists and writers produced seminal creative masterworks under the influence of this substance, including The Beatles, Jim Morrison, Andy Warhol, and Aldous Huxley.
Historically, the largest clandestine manufacturing centers for LSD were based in the Netherlands, synthesizing crystal that was subsequently laid onto characteristic five-millimeter square paper blotter sheets, colloquially known as tabs or acid.
Ultimately, LSD possesses extraordinary properties of immense scientific importance, which have remained tragically neglected for decades due to socio-political hysteria rather than rational scientific appraisal.
Mescaline (3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine)
Mescaline is a naturally occurring alkaloid extracted from peyote cactus. Ernst Späth first elucidated its chemical structure and achieved total chemical synthesis in 1918. Its systematic chemical designation is 3,4,5-trimethoxyphenethylamine. Its molecular configuration closely resembles adrenaline, possessing sympathomimetic phenethylamine architecture with three methoxy substitutions on a benzene core. Since its synthesis, pure mescaline has been produced in pharmaceutical laboratories as a white crystalline sulfate powder.
The subjective effects of mescaline are exceptionally robust. Sensory acuity is heightened, visual color perception intensifies dramatically, volitional drive recedes, and identity undergoes pronounced fragmentation as awareness splits between ordinary and transcendent dimensions. Dynamic visions erupt from the unconscious without linear logical continuity. The pharmacological profile closely replicates the sacramental experience of ingesting raw peyote buttons.
Laboratory research demonstrated that sodium succinate facilitates oxidative metabolism in brain tissue when glucose, lactate, and pyruvate oxidations have been inhibited by mescaline. This metabolic buffering effect varies between individuals, producing temporary attenuation of mescaline-induced perceptual shifts.
Pure pharmaceutical mescaline remains exceedingly rare on contemporary black markets, where capsules sold as mescaline almost invariably contain other synthetic analogues.
GHB (Gamma-hydroxybutyrate)
This compound first gained widespread notoriety in New York nightclub circuits during the early 1990s, circulating as a powder or gel dissolved in soft drinks before reaching European nightlife as a liquid solution. Illicit distributors sold small dropper bottles or needleless oral syringes intended to administer milliliters sublingually.
Pharmacologically, gamma-hydroxybutyrate is a central nervous system depressant originally investigated as an intravenous surgical anesthetic.
In social settings, users report marked prosocial euphoria, warmth, heightened tactile sensitivity, disinhibition, and enhanced libido lasting approximately three hours. Small amounts promote relaxed intoxication and synergize strongly with ethanol, frequently culminating in deep sedative slumber.
However, GHB possesses an exceptionally steep dose-response curve and narrow therapeutic window. Toxicologists stress that slight miscalculations are perilous. Dosages exceeding seventy milligrams per kilogram produce severe bradycardia, profound respiratory depression, sudden unconsciousness, coma, and potential fatality. The compound poses acute danger when combined with alcohol.
Socially, GHB is often described as occupying a peculiar middle ground between alcohol, sedatives, and empathogenic stimulants.
Ecstasy or MDMA (Methylenedioxymethamphetamine)
Originally synthesized and patented in 1912 by the German pharmaceutical company Merck as an intermediate chemical precursor, MDMA remained largely obscure in the scientific literature until the 1970s. Biochemist Alexander Shulgin resynthesized the compound and documented its unique empathic properties, introducing it to psychotherapists. By the mid-1980s, MDMA entered mainstream nightlife via Ibiza holiday culture, spawning the modern electronic dance music scene before being placed in Schedule I by international drug conventions in 1985.
Pure MDMA possesses relatively moderate physiological toxicity compared to stimulants like methamphetamine, yet illicit tablets carry severe risks due to adulteration, hyperthermia, and dehydration in crowded dance venues.
Roughly thirty to forty-five minutes following ingestion, subjective effects surge: intense empathy, emotional openness, sociability, pleasurable tingling sensations, goosebumps, and tactile sensitivity. Auditory perception becomes immersive, accompanied by feelings of profound inner peace, sensual intimacy, and enhanced emotional resilience.
Moderate acute side effects include jaw clenching (bruxism), nystagmus, dilated pupils, insomnia, elevated heart rate, profuse sweating, and transient nausea.
Severe clinical complications, though rare, include malignant hyperthermia, acute hepatic necrosis, renal failure, rhabdomyolysis, cerebral edema from water intoxication (hyponatremia), and serotonin syndrome.
In the days following use, down-regulation of serotonin can cause a midweek crash marked by fatigue, depressed mood, irritability, and anxiety.
Illicit ecstasy tablets exhibit immense qualitative variability, with active dosages ranging wildly between 60 mg and over 200 mg per pill, compounding harm-reduction challenges.
A diverse family of phenethylamine analogues closely related to MDMA routinely appears in black-market pills, each exhibiting distinctive pharmacological profiles:
Love Drug (MDA)
Significantly more visionary and psychedelic than MDMA, MDA lasts longer but carries higher neurotoxic and cardiovascular risks.
New Ecstasy (MBDB)
A structural homologue offering mild empathogenic warmth with less stimulant drive and minimal visionary activity.
Eve (MDEA)
Offers prominent central nervous system stimulation with reduced emotional opening and noticeably light entheogenic properties compared to MDMA.
Other notable designer amphetamines whose names circulate through illicit markets include:
STP (DOM / Dimethoxymethylamphetamine)
A highly potent psychedelic phenethylamine (2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine) popular in 1960s California counterculture, whose protracted duration and intensity far exceed mescaline.
PMA (Para-methoxyamphetamine)
An exceptionally hazardous stimulant with active doses around 3 mg/kg. It produces delayed onset, severe hyperthermia, extreme tachycardia, and muscle tremors, having caused numerous fatal poisonings when mis-sold as ecstasy.
— Methylenedioxyphenylisopropylamine.
— Methylenedioxyphenylamphetamine.
— Dimethoxyamphetamine (DMA).
— Dimethoxybromoamphetamine (DOB, highly toxic and long-lasting).
— Methoxymethylenedioxyamphetamine (MMDA).
MDMA and MDA are synthetic phenethylamines structurally related to mescaline and methamphetamine. MDMA’s molecular backbone closely echoes safrole—the natural aromatic compound found in sassafras oil and nutmeg—and retains similarities to mescaline.
The foremost modern danger lies in adulterated tablets pressed with industrial binders, synthetic cathinones, or novel psychoactive chemicals. Pill testing and harm-reduction outreach remain vital tools to minimize poisonings.
Observers have noted that classic ecstasy culture is continually challenged by novel designer phenethylamines such as 2C-B (Nexus), which blend entheogenic and sensual properties.
Poppers (Amyl nitrite)
Inhalants known colloquially as poppers act by inducing rapid smooth-muscle relaxation and vasodilation, increasing blood flow throughout the body. They trigger sudden facial flushing, rapid heart rate, lightheaded euphoria, and anal sphincter relaxation.
Historically sold over the counter before strict chemical regulations were introduced, poppers remain prevalent within electronic dance music and LGBTQ+ club culture across Europe.
Supplied in small glass vials, the volatile chemical vapors are inhaled directly prior to peak social or sexual experiences.
Related vasodilators exhibiting similar pharmacology include isobutyl nitrite and alkyl nitrite formulations.
Cat (Methcathinone)
Methcathinone is an exceptionally addictive synthetic stimulant. Its physiological potency rivals or exceeds cocaine and methamphetamine, carrying severe psychological dependencies and paranoid psychoses.
Initially synthesized in Germany in 1928 and evaluated in the Soviet Union during the 1930s and 1940s as an antidepressant, methcathinone was patented by Parke-Davis in 1957. It was promptly shelved once animal trials revealed elevated addiction liability. In 1989, clandestine recipes were stolen from academic archives in Michigan, unleashing widespread illicit kitchen manufacture across the American Midwest and Eastern Europe.
Typically insufflated or injected, methcathinone synthesized from ephedrine precursors triggers acute hypertensive spikes, severe insomnia, rapid emaciation, and systemic dopaminergic burnout. It is an exceedingly dangerous stimulant.
Hofmann’s Elixir
A nineteenth-century medicinal and recreational formulation that enjoyed popularity among artistic circles for its rapid intoxicating and dream-like qualities.
Composed traditionally of three parts ethanol to one part diethyl ether, this mixture produces sensory detachment, auditory distortion, disinhibition, and vivid hypnagogic reverie.
Tolerance escalates swiftly with chronic consumption, while risks of respiratory failure and flammable accidents remain severe.
Adrenochrome
An oxidation byproduct of adrenaline that early psychiatric researchers investigated as an exploratory biochemical bridge between hallucinogenic states and endogenous schizophrenic psychosis.
PCP (Phencyclidine)
Phencyclidine is among the most unpredictable dissociative anesthetics. Originally developed as a surgical and veterinary anesthetic under the brand Sernyl, PCP can be smoked, ingested, snorted, or injected. Moderate doses provoke disorientation, sensory numbness, and severe ataxia. High doses precipitate dissociative delirium, catatonia, violent psychosis, seizures, coma, and death.
First surfacing on San Francisco streets in 1967, PCP peaked in popularity during the late 1970s. Known as angel dust, it poses extraordinary risks of behavioral trauma.
Mescaline-LSD Group (Trimethoxy-phenyl-beta-aminopropane)
This class shares common features with amphetamines (notably central stimulant and sympathomimetic activity), yet displays unmistakable entheogenic properties. It encompasses trimethoxy-phenyl-beta-aminopropane (a mescaline homologue) alongside synthetic benzilate derivatives. These anticholinergic glycolates can produce profound deliriant states: experimental oral doses of 10 mg of N-methyl-3-piperidyl benzilate induced total loss of environmental contact lasting several hours alongside terrifying audiovisual hallucinations.
MLD-41, TMA, JD, JB-318
Chemists have synthesized novel entheogenic molecules absent from nature, including MLD-41, TMA, and the piperidyl series such as JD-329 and JB-318. When administered orally in doses between 5 and 15 mg, JB-318 elicits peripheral anticholinergic effects mirroring atropine, followed by somnolence, sensory detachment, dream-like illusions, and perceptual unreality. As with all psychoactive compounds, individual neurochemistry shapes the quality of the visionary experience.
DMT (N,N-Dimethyltryptamine)
DMT is a natural indole tryptamine alkaloid found abundantly throughout the plant and animal kingdoms. It was first isolated from botanical sources such as the seeds of Piptadenia peregrina (the basis of traditional Caribbean and Amazonian cohoba snuff), showing close structural kinship to bufotenin. The shrub Piptadenia peregrina, belonging to the legume family, flourishes along the Orinoco river basin. Similarly, the Pancarú of Pernambuco (Brazil) prepare vinho de Jurumena from the seeds of the legume Mimosa hostilis for sacred shamanic ceremonies; its active entheogen, nigerine, is identical to DMT. Snuff doses of 5 to 20 mg induce rapid non-colored geometric patterns, temporal dilation, or complete cessation of time. Synthetic DMT provokes lightning-fast changes in consciousness—often described in psychonaut slang as a blase (an explosive launch). Completely inactive orally due to visceral monoamine oxidase breakdown unless paired with an MAOI (as in ayahuasca), DMT produces overwhelming immersion when administered intravenously or vaporized. Related synthetic tryptamines include diethyltryptamine (DET) and dipropyltryptamine (DPT), the latter exhibiting an onset of five minutes and a short duration of roughly an hour.
DMT occurs across a broad botanical inventory, including leaves of Psychotria viridis and numerous species of Acacia and Mimosa.
Remarkably, DMT also exists endogenously within human cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissue, likely explaining its breathtakingly rapid onset and fleeting duration. When vaporized or insufflated, the visionary onset unfolds with staggering intensity. The conscious self dissolves into luminous multidimensional spaces, accompanied by deep emotional awe, stable vital signs, and profound clarity of awareness.
Lorfan (Levallorphan)
An obscure synthetic compound of primarily historical pharmacology. Developed as an opioid antagonist, high doses elicit dysphoric fantasy, perceptual shifts, and depersonalization without recreational utility.
Amphetamines
Amphetamines represent sympathomimetic phenethylamines chemically related to adrenaline. The two foundational compounds from which most pharmaceutical and illicit derivatives stem are d-amphetamine sulfate (Dexedrine), the dextrorotatory optical isomer, and racemic amphetamine sulfate (Benzedrine).
Their stimulant and alerting properties arise from enhanced synaptic catecholamine release. As systematized by Schwiep, this neurochemical surge manifests as temporary enhancement of cognitive stamina, heightened self-confidence, motor alertness, rapid verbal fluency, relief from fatigue, and focused concentration.
The dextro isomer (Dexedrine) is roughly twice as potent centrally as the racemic mixture and four times more active than levo-amphetamine. Pharmacologically, modifying the phenethylamine backbone away from adrenaline toward amphetamine enhances central nervous system stimulation while decreasing peripheral cardiovascular strain.
Sympathomimetic amines act upon adrenergic receptor sites throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems. Whether derived from natural botanicals (such as cathine from khat) or synthetic laboratories, they share common physiological targets.
Major pharmaceutical and recreational stimulants include amphetamine, phentermine, chlorphentermine, and methamphetamine; the latter forms the chemical core of crystal speed and designer analogues.
Non-amphetamine heterocyclic stimulant derivatives derived from piperidine chemistry include methylphenidate (Ritalin), pipradrol, and phenmetrazine (Preludin).
Historically, pharmacies dispensed a wide array of anorectics and stimulants such as fenproporex, fenfluramine, diethylpropion, and mazindol.
Other notable stimulants include racemic amphetamine sulfate, which induces swift psychological habituation, and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), an industrial solvent capable of transdermal transport.
Smart Drugs
The term “smart drugs” refers to nootropic compounds and cognitive enhancers designed to optimize neurological performance, a subculture that surged during the 1990s. Many of these compounds originated as clinical treatments for neurodegenerative decline, cerebrovascular insufficiency, or geriatric dementia.
Nootropics aim to slow age-related cognitive decline, repair neuronal damage, or enhance neuroplasticity. By modulating acetylcholine and glutamate receptors, they improve synaptic transmission and interhemispheric communication.
These agents span pharmaceutical nootropics, dietary nutrients, and botanical preparations:
Piracetam is the prototypical nootropic compound, widely used for cognitive support and memory consolidation, with mild side effects limited to occasional insomnia or tension.
Hydergine (codergocrine mesylate) protects cerebral tissue against hypoxic injury and supports cellular metabolism in aging brains, displaying a high safety margin.
Vasopressin (Diapid) is a peptide hormone influencing memory consolidation and mental alertness, though cardiovascular precautions are necessary.
Centrophenoxine exhibits neuroprotective and lipofuscin-clearing properties, supporting cellular integrity in aging neurons.
DMAE (dimethylaminoethanol) serves as a biochemical precursor in acetylcholine pathways, enhancing mood and physical energy.
Nutritional nootropics comprise amino acids, choline precursors, and antioxidant formulas designed to support cerebral perfusion.
The botanical wing comprises herbal drugs and energy elixirs. Street formulations historically marketed names like “Discos,” “Outlaw,” “Gogos,” “Purple Haze,” and aphrodisiac blends.
A notable commercial craze of the 1990s was “herbal ecstasy,” marketed as an over-the-counter alternative to MDMA. These commercial preparations relied on ephedra (Ma Huang) containing ephedrine and pseudoephedrine blended with caffeine, until public health agencies restricted ephedra alkaloids due to cardiovascular hazards.
Similarly, products like “Cloud 9” and “Nirvana Plus” circulated through nightlife mail orders before regulatory enforcement caught up.
Other energy formulations combined ephedrine, phenylpropanolamine, and caffeine to mimic synthetic speed.
2C-B (4-Bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine)
Synthesized by Alexander Shulgin in 1973, 2C-B (marketed under names such as Nexus, Performax, or Eros) became one of the most prominent designer entheogens. Revered for blending sensory empathic warmth with colorful psychedelic visuals, it gained a reputation as a potent sensual enhancer.
2C-B exhibits a steep dose-response curve: 5 to 10 mg produces mild euphoria and tactile sensory enhancement, 15 to 20 mg induces classic psychedelic visuals, while doses above 25 mg can trigger intense kaleidoscopic visions and emotional turbulence lasting four to eight hours. Despite its potency, physiological vital signs remain remarkably stable within standard recreational dosages.
2C-B frequently synergizes with MDMA, creating a complementary empathogenic and visionary journey.
Other Active Psychoactive Substances
— Fencamfamin.
— Methylphenidate.
— Norephedrine.
— Pemoline.
— Pipradrol.
— Pyrovalerone.
— Tranylcypromine.
— Methaqualone (Quaaludes, Mandrax).
Both modern pharmacies and botanical traditions offer a vast array of psychoactive molecules; discerning their pharmacology and respecting their power is the foundation of cognitive freedom.
